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History of Genetic Engineering
1859 Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species, which describes how evolution results from natural selection. 1866 Gregor Mendel publishes an account of his experiments with peas, explaining the laws of genetics. 1944 DNA is recognized to carry hereditary factors. 1953 The double-helix structure of DNA is described. 1973 In the first successful genetic engineering experiment, a gene from an African clawed toad is inserted into bacterial DNA, heralding the era of recombinant DNA technology. 1976 Genentech, the world's first genetic engineering company, is founded. 1980 The U.S. Supreme Court rules 5-4 that genetically engineered microorganisms can be patented (Diamond v. Chakrabarty). Leaves to Congress to decide whether higher organisms can be patented. Congressional debate never occurs. 1982 The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves the first genetically engineered drug, a form of insulin produced by bacteria. 1982 University of Pennsylvania researcher creates "super mouse" by inserting human growth hormones into mouse DNA. 1986 The FDA approves the first genetically engineered vaccine for humans, for hepatitis B. 1987 The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office announces that non-human animals can be patented. 1987 Researchers annouce the production of genetically engineered mice that produce a human heart attack drug in their milk. 1988 The first patent issued for a mammal goes to the "Harvard-Dupont Oncomouse," a genetically engineered mouse highly susceptible to breast cancer. 1988 Researcher at U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) inserts human growth hormone into a pig's genes, resulting in a hairy, lethargic animal so arthritic it can barely stand up. 1990 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves first genetically engineered food -- chymosin. Produced by genetically engineered bacteria, chymosin functions like rennet, an enzyme used in cheese production that is traditionally obtained from cows' stomachs. Chymosin is used to make more than half of all cheese produced in the United States. 1993 The FDA approves genetically engineered Bovine Growth Hormone (BGH), a drug designed to increase milk production in cows. The FDA does not require that milk from BHG-injected cows be labeled as such. 1994 The FDA approves the "Flavr Savr" tomato, which is genetically engineered for a longer shelf life. Its bland taste and high price make it a commercial dud. 1996 Genzyme Transgenics Corp. of Framingham announces the birth of Grace, a transgenic goat who carries a specific human cancer-fighting protein in her milk. Working with Tufts University, Genzyme subsequently creates other transgenic goats able to produce other pharmaceuticals in their milk to treat heart disease, hemophilia and cancer. 1997 Scientists at PPL Therapeutics in Scotland clone Dolly the sheep from the udder cell of an adult ewe whose tissues had been frozen three years earlier. Of the 277 fused eggs they began with, only 29 survived to the blastocyst stage. Many of those that died before or after birth showed kidney, brain and liver abnormalities. 1997 Molly and Polly are cloned from the cells of a fetus. They are transgenic sheep, carrying a human gene that produces a protein in their milk that aides blood clotting. 1998 Geneticists at UMass-Amherst and Advanced Cell Technology of Worcester, Mass. clone two calves named Charlie and George. They intend to clone cows that will produce pharmaceuticals in their milk -- such as human serum albumin, a protein widely used in hospital emergency rooms to expand the blood volume of patients who have lost blood. 1998 Scientists at the University of Hawaii announce the birth of Cumulina and six other generations of cloned mice -- the first reproducible clones. In partnership with PPL Therapeutics, these scientists are using the mice to study cancer and the effects of aging. 1998 Researchers at Texas A & M University's veterinary school begin efforts to produce the first clone of a pet dog. With funding from a wealthy anonymous couple, they hope to use tissue samples taken from an 11-year-old spayed female dog named Missy to create another dog just like her. Five years later, efforts to clone Missy are still unsuccessful. 2000 The Scottish scientists who cloned Dolly announce the birth of two more cloned sleep -- Cupid and Diana -- using a new gene targeting technique that makes it possible not just to add genes but also to knock existing genes out of action. Large animals such as sheep, pigs and cows can also now be genetically engineered to replace mice in the study of human diseases. 2000 Scientists at PPL Therapeutics announce the birth of the first successfully cloned pigs at the company's research facility in Blacksburg, Va. The company hopes the feat will accelerate efforts to develop genetically modified pigs with "people-friendly" organs for transplantation. 2000 PPL Therapeutics produces a genetically modified hen named Britney who produces in her eggs an extra protein designed to fight cancer. 2000 A Black Angus bull named Bull 86 Squared is cloned by scientists at Texas A&U from genetic material frozen 15 years ago from Bull 86 who was naturally resistant to brucellosis, tuberculosis, and salmonellosis -- diseases that can be passed on to humans in meat or milk. Bull 86 Squared appears to have those same immunities. 2001 A rare ox called a gaur named Noah is born to Bessie, a domestic cow, in Sioux Falls, IA -- the first endangered species cloned by implanting cells into a cow's egg. Noah died two days later of a bacterial infection. Five other cows pregnant with cloned gaurs spontaneously aborted their fetuses. 2001 Scientists at Oregon Regional Primate Research Center announce birth of first genetically altered monkey named ANDi, for "inserted DNA" spelled backwards. Researchers hope to engineer primates to carry human diseases to facilitate the search for cures for cystic fibrosis and brain diseases like Alzheimer's. Of the 224 rhesus monkey eggs originally injected with the marker gene, only 126 embryos developed. Forty were implanted into surrogate mothers, resulting in only five pregnancies. Two fetuses were stillborn, and three male monkey infants were born. Only ANDi carries the marker gene. 2001 More than 20 companies worldwide are involved in pharmaceutical protein production in various transgenic animals. Nexia Biotechnologies, Inc. of Canada is using BELE (breed early lactate early) goats to produce spider silk protein in their milk for use in bullet-proof vests and in surgical sutures. 2002 Scientists at Texas A&M University clone a house cat they named "cc" for carbon copy. 2003 Dolly the sheep dies at age 6 of a common incurable lung disease. Dolly suffered at an early age from arthritis. |
